Academic Research Proposal

This is just a draft. 

COMPARATIVE STUDY • ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT • TASAW WUF • MALAY INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE

Tasawwuf, Adab and Islamic Governance: A Comparative Study of Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi in the Context of Contemporary Islamic Political Thought

Comparative reference thinkers: Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi.

Research field: Islamic Political Philosophy, Tasawwuf, Malay-Islamic Intellectual History and Islamic Civilisation.

Proposed research approach: Qualitative, historical, textual and comparative analysis.

Preliminary research position

This proposal develops the arguments in the uploaded 13-page document, while distinguishing three levels of material:

• Source material: Arguments and comparisons actually presented in the uploaded document.
• Research propositions: Interpretations that appear promising but require testing against original texts.
• Established scholarship: Historical and intellectual claims that must be supported by reliable primary sources and academic research.

The research will not assume that Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi held identical political philosophies. Rather, it will investigate whether their respective intellectual traditions offer complementary insights into the relationship between spiritual formation, ethical leadership, political authority and Islamic social and economic life.

The central proposition is that the development of an Islamic civilisation requires the integration of inner spiritual formation and outward social responsibility. Political institutions and legal structures alone may not be sufficient without people whose conduct is grounded in Tawhid, adab, justice and accountability before Allah.

This is a research hypothesis, not a predetermined conclusion.

FORMAL ACADEMIC RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Tasawwuf, Adab and Islamic Governance: A Comparative Study of Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi in the Context of Contemporary Islamic Political Thought

Comparative reference thinkers: Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi

Proposed discipline: Islamic Studies, Islamic Political Philosophy, Tasawwuf and Malay-Islamic Civilisation

Research methodology: Qualitative historical, textual and comparative research

1. ABSTRACT

This research proposes a comparative examination of Islamic political thought through the writings and teachings of Raja Ali Haji (1808/1809–1873) and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi (1926–2021), with particular reference to Raja Ali Haji’s Tsamarat al-Muhimmah and the writings and discourses of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi.

The study will investigate the relationship between Tawhid, tasawwuf, tazkiyatun nafs, adab, siyasah and muamalah in the formation of Islamic leadership and the development of Muslim society. It will also examine the extent to which spiritual formation and ethical conduct are understood as foundations of legitimate and sustainable Islamic governance.

Raja Ali Haji’s Tsamarat al-Muhimmah, produced within the political and intellectual environment of the nineteenth-century Riau-Lingga Sultanate, provides an important example of Malay Islamic political and ethical thought. Its discussions of rulers, ministers, judicial responsibilities, justice, religious obligations and public administration offer a valuable foundation for examining the moral dimensions of political authority.

In comparison, Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi presents a modern interpretation of Islamic social and political renewal that gives considerable attention to spiritual transformation, personal leadership, the restoration of Islamic commercial practices, zakat, waqf and the use of gold and silver currencies. His writings, particularly Sultaniyya and The Muslim Prince, provide important primary materials for investigating these ideas.

The study will also examine the political approaches of Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi. These thinkers represent different responses to the political, intellectual and institutional challenges confronting Muslim societies in the twentieth century. Their respective understandings of political organisation, divine sovereignty, Islamic governance and spiritual development will be examined without assuming that they share a single ideological position.

The research adopts a qualitative comparative methodology involving textual analysis, historical contextualisation and thematic interpretation of primary and secondary sources.

The central research proposition is that the sustainability of Islamic civilisation requires the integration of spiritual formation, ethical leadership, justice, Islamic social responsibility and sound economic relationships. The study seeks to establish how the intellectual contributions of Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of Islamic governance and contemporary Muslim community development.

Keywords: Raja Ali Haji; Tsamarat al-Muhimmah; Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi; Tawhid; Tasawwuf; Tazkiyatun Nafs; Adab; Siyasah; Muamalah; Islamic Governance; Islamic Civilisation.

2. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

2.1 Islamic governance and the formation of civilisation

The question of how Islamic civilisation should be established, sustained and renewed has occupied Muslim scholars throughout Islamic history.

Islamic political thought has traditionally addressed questions concerning legitimate authority, justice, consultation, public responsibility, the application of Shariah and the welfare of society.

However, Islamic governance cannot be examined solely as an institutional or constitutional question. It also involves the moral and spiritual condition of individuals who exercise authority and participate in society.

The relationship between the inner condition of the individual and the outward organisation of society is therefore an important area of Islamic intellectual inquiry.

The Qur’anic emphasis on justice, trustworthiness, accountability and purification of the soul provides a broad framework for examining this relationship.

This study proposes that Islamic governance should be examined through an integrated framework involving:

1. Tawhid as the foundation of belief and human responsibility.
2. Tasawwuf and tazkiyatun nafs as processes of spiritual formation.
3. Adab and akhlaq as foundations of ethical conduct.
4. Siyasah as the organisation and exercise of political authority.
5. Muamalah as the foundation of just economic and social relationships.
6. Ummah as the community through which Islamic values are expressed in practice.

These dimensions provide the conceptual foundation for comparing the selected thinkers.

2.2 Raja Ali Haji and nineteenth-century Malay political thought

Raja Ali Haji was a prominent Malay Muslim scholar, writer, historian and intellectual associated with the Riau-Lingga Sultanate.

His work Tsamarat al-Muhimmah is particularly significant because it addresses the responsibilities of rulers, ministers, judges and other public officials.

Khalif Muammar A. Harris (2011) identifies the work as an important contribution to nineteenth-century Malay constitutional and political thought. Its themes include religious foundations, knowledge, appointment and removal of rulers, justice, corruption, the relationship between religion and government, and the duties of public officials.

The work is therefore not merely a historical document. It provides an opportunity to examine how Islamic intellectual traditions were articulated within the political and cultural environment of the Malay world.

The research will investigate whether its treatment of leadership and governance can be understood through the interconnected concepts of Shariah, adab, spiritual responsibility and public welfare.

It will also examine its relationship with earlier Islamic political literature, particularly the traditions represented by al-Mawardi’s Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah and al-Ghazali’s political and ethical writings. Such intellectual relationships will be established through textual evidence rather than assumed influence.

2.3 Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi and contemporary Islamic renewal

Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi developed a distinctive approach to Islamic renewal through the integration of spiritual education, Islamic law, community leadership and commercial practice.

His intellectual contributions include discussions of Tawhid, personal responsibility, the Muslim leader, political authority, zakat, trade and the restoration of Islamic social institutions.

Among the primary texts relevant to this research are:

• Sultaniyya.
• The Muslim Prince.
• The Book of Tawhid.
• The Book of ’Amal.
• Root Islamic Education.
• His Quranic commentaries and recorded discourses.

These materials will be examined to identify his understanding of the relationship between spiritual transformation and the practical establishment of Islamic social and economic life.

Particular attention will be given to the relationship between tasawwuf and personal leadership, the role of the Amir, the institution of the market, zakat, waqf and dinar-dirham.

The study will distinguish his own documented arguments from interpretations subsequently developed by followers, institutions or commentators.

2.4 Twentieth-century Islamic political thought

The twentieth century witnessed the development of several influential Islamic political movements and intellectual approaches.

Three important figures are included in this study.

Hasan al-Banna

Al-Banna’s approach emphasised the gradual formation of individuals and society through religious education, moral development, organised activity and community engagement.

His association with the Hashafiyya Sufi tradition is particularly relevant when investigating the relationship between tasawwuf and organised Islamic activism.

Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani

Al-Nabhani developed a political framework centred on the restoration of the Islamic Caliphate. His writings examine political authority, Islamic law, the state and the organisation of political movements.

His approach offers an important comparison with community-based models of Islamic renewal.

Abul A’la al-Maududi

Al-Maududi developed an influential theory of divine sovereignty, commonly discussed through the concept of Hakimiyyah. His political writings examine the relationship between divine authority, legislation, political participation and the Islamic state.

These three thinkers will not be treated as representatives of one homogeneous movement. Their differences in political theory, methodology and spiritual outlook are central to the comparative investigation.

2.5 Historical context

The selected thinkers addressed different historical conditions.

Raja Ali Haji wrote within the political environment of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate during increasing Dutch colonial intervention.

The nineteenth-century context must be distinguished from the earlier VOC period, since the VOC had already been dissolved in 1799.

The Dutch formally ended the Riau-Lingga Sultanate in 1911 following Sultan Abdurrahman Muazzam Syah’s refusal to accept the terms of complete submission to the colonial administration.

The twentieth-century thinkers, meanwhile, addressed the challenges of colonialism, secularisation, the modern nation-state and the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924.

Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi’s writings emerged in a later historical context characterised by global financial integration, modern state institutions and renewed interest in Islamic spiritual and economic practices.

Understanding these different contexts is essential to avoiding misleading comparisons between the thinkers.

3. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Contemporary discussions of Islamic governance frequently emphasise political institutions, constitutional structures, the application of Islamic law and the organisation of political movements.

Although these dimensions are important, the relationship between spiritual formation and the exercise of political authority requires further investigation.

An Islamic political system may possess formal institutions and legal structures, yet its effectiveness in achieving justice and social welfare also depends on the character, intentions and conduct of those responsible for operating it.

This raises an important research problem: to what extent should tasawwuf, tazkiyatun nafs and adab be regarded as integral dimensions of Islamic governance rather than matters confined to individual religious practice?

Raja Ali Haji’s Tsamarat al-Muhimmah offers an important historical perspective on the moral and religious responsibilities of rulers and public officials.

Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi offers a modern perspective in which spiritual transformation, personal leadership, muamalah and community institutions are closely connected.

However, these two intellectual traditions emerged in different historical circumstances and have not yet been sufficiently examined together through a systematic comparative framework.

Furthermore, the political approaches of Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi provide additional perspectives on the relationship between Islamic spirituality, political organisation and institutional governance.

A significant problem is the tendency to discuss these thinkers primarily through their respective political structures or ideological positions without sufficiently examining the underlying relationship between Tawhid, spiritual formation, ethical conduct and the development of society.

This research therefore seeks to investigate whether a more comprehensive framework of Islamic governance can be developed by examining the relationship between spiritual formation and the outward dimensions of Islamic social, political and economic life.

The study does not assume that spiritual shortcomings explain the historical success or failure of particular political movements. Rather, it investigates the conceptual and textual evidence concerning the place of spirituality in their respective approaches.

4. RESEARCH GAP

The proposed research identifies five areas requiring further investigation.

4.1 Raja Ali Haji’s political and ethical thought

Existing scholarship has examined Raja Ali Haji’s contribution to Malay political and constitutional thought.

Khalif Muammar A. Harris (2011) discusses the importance of Thamarat al-Muhimmah as a work of Malay constitutional thought.

Azman Yusof’s 2012 thesis also examines leadership, constitutional principles, justice, judicial responsibilities and the ethics of rulers in the text.

A 2026 study by Raja Hisyamudin Raja Sulong and colleagues examines Raja Ali Haji’s use of Qur’anic verses in developing his political arguments.

These studies provide an important foundation. The present research seeks to extend the discussion through a systematic investigation of the relationship between spiritual formation, ethical leadership and Islamic governance.

4.2 Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi’s political and spiritual thought

His writings discuss political leadership, Tawhid, spiritual development, zakat, wealth and Islamic social organisation.

However, these subjects require a systematic academic examination of their relationship with one another.

The present study will investigate these connections directly through his primary texts and documented discourses.

4.3 The relationship between tasawwuf and political thought

The relationship between Sufi spirituality and political authority has a long history in Islamic civilisation.

However, modern political movements have developed different approaches to the role of tasawwuf.

The study will investigate these differences without assuming that all modern Islamic political movements reject spiritual development or that all Sufi approaches share the same political programme.

4.4 Integration of political and economic institutions

The relationship between political leadership and economic life is another area requiring investigation.

The study will examine the relationship between zakat, waqf, trade, markets, money and economic justice in Shaykh Abdalqadir’s writings and compare the relevant themes with the responsibilities of rulers and public officials in Raja Ali Haji’s work.

4.5 Contemporary application in Muslim society

There is a need to investigate how historical and contemporary Islamic intellectual traditions can inform the practical development of Muslim communities.

This includes spiritual education, ethical leadership, community institutions, charitable endowments and economic cooperation.

The research will therefore consider how the selected ideas may contribute to contemporary Muslim community development, without assuming that nineteenth-century or twentieth-century institutions can simply be reproduced in the present.

5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The general objective is:

To develop a comparative understanding of the relationship between Tawhid, tasawwuf, adab, political authority and muamalah in the development of Islamic governance and Muslim civilisation, based principally on the intellectual contributions of Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi.

The specific objectives are:

1. To examine the political, ethical and religious foundations of governance in Raja Ali Haji’s Tsamarat al-Muhimmah.
2. To analyse Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi’s understanding of Tawhid, tasawwuf, spiritual formation, leadership and Islamic social and economic institutions.
3. To investigate the relationship between spiritual development and political authority in the selected writings.
4. To compare the respective approaches of Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi with the political thought of Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi.
5. To identify similarities, differences, historical continuities and conceptual distinctions among the selected thinkers.
6. To develop a conceptual framework connecting spiritual formation, ethical leadership, governance, economic justice and Muslim community development.
7. To evaluate the relevance of these intellectual contributions to contemporary Islamic civilisation.

6. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research will address the following questions:

RQ1. How does Raja Ali Haji conceptualise Islamic political authority, justice and the ethical responsibilities of rulers and public officials in Tsamarat al-Muhimmah?

RQ2. How does Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi understand the relationship between Tawhid, tasawwuf, spiritual formation, personal leadership and Islamic social and economic institutions?

RQ3. What are the similarities and differences between the two thinkers concerning the relationship between spiritual development and Islamic governance?

RQ4. How do the approaches of Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi differ in their treatment of spiritual formation, political organisation, divine sovereignty and Islamic governance?

RQ5. What conceptual relationships can be established between Tawhid, tasawwuf, adab, siyasah and muamalah?

RQ6. How may the selected intellectual contributions inform contemporary Muslim community development and the renewal of Islamic civilisation?

7. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

7.1 Scope

The study will concentrate on five intellectual areas.

Primary focus A: Raja Ali Haji

The principal text will be Tsamarat al-Muhimmah.

The analysis will focus on:

• The religious foundations of governance.
• Qualifications and responsibilities of rulers.
• Justice and judicial administration.
• Ministers and public officials.
• Moral and ethical responsibilities.
• The relationship between religion, law and government.
• Social stability and public welfare.

Primary focus B: Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi

The study will examine selected primary writings and documented discourses, especially:

• Sultaniyya.
• The Muslim Prince.
• The Book of Tawhid.
• The Book of ’Amal.
• Root Islamic Education.
• Relevant Quranic commentaries and recorded lectures.

The analysis will examine:

• Tawhid and spiritual transformation.
• Tasawwuf and the purification of the heart.
• Personal authority and leadership.
• The role of Amir.
• Zakat and waqf.
• Trade and the market.
• Dinar and dirham.
• Islamic community development.

Comparative focus C: Twentieth-century political thinkers

The study will examine selected writings of:

• Hasan al-Banna.
• Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani.
• Abul A’la al-Maududi.

These thinkers will provide a comparative framework rather than an exhaustive treatment of their entire intellectual contributions.

7.2 Geographical scope

The historical focus will include:

• The Riau-Lingga Malay intellectual and political environment.
• The Egyptian context of Hasan al-Banna.
• The Palestinian and Jordanian contexts associated with al-Nabhani.
• The Indian subcontinent and Pakistan in relation to al-Maududi.
• The international intellectual and community networks associated with Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi.

7.3 Limitations

The research recognises several limitations.

1. Historical texts may be available in different manuscripts, editions and translations.
2. Certain works by Shaykh Abdalqadir may exist in recorded or unpublished forms requiring verification.
3. The selected thinkers belong to different historical and political contexts, limiting direct institutional comparison.
4. Some concepts may have different meanings across historical periods and intellectual traditions.
5. The research is primarily textual and historical; it will not claim to establish the practical success of particular political systems without independent empirical evidence.
6. The research will not attempt to establish a complete historical genealogy or spiritual chain of transmission unless supported by documentary evidence.

8. LITERATURE REVIEW

8.1 Classical Islamic political thought

Classical Islamic political and legal scholarship provides an important background for understanding the relationship between political authority, justice and religious responsibility.

Al-Mawardi’s Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah examines political authority, public administration, judicial responsibilities and the institutional dimensions of Islamic governance.

Al-Ghazali’s writings, particularly Nasihat al-Muluk, provide an important ethical perspective on rulers, justice, accountability and the dangers of unjust government.

These works will be examined as intellectual reference points for understanding the wider tradition within which Raja Ali Haji’s political writing should be situated.

The research will distinguish demonstrable textual influence from broader intellectual similarity.

8.2 Raja Ali Haji and Malay political philosophy

Khalif Muammar A. Harris (2011) provides an important foundation for understanding Thamarat al-Muhimmah as a contribution to Malay constitutional thought.

The work addresses the responsibilities of rulers, ministers and officials and the relationship between religious principles and government.

Azman Yusof (2012) examines the text through the themes of leadership, justice, judicial responsibilities and the ethics of rulers.

More recent research by Raja Hisyamudin Raja Sulong and colleagues (2026) investigates Raja Ali Haji’s use of Qur’anic verses in articulating political principles.

These studies demonstrate that Thamarat al-Muhimmah is a significant source for Islamic political and ethical analysis.

The present study will extend this discussion by examining the relationship between its moral and religious foundations and the wider question of spiritual formation.

8.3 Hasan al-Banna and Islamic social reform

Hasan al-Banna’s writings and the scholarship on the Muslim Brotherhood provide an important perspective on Islamic social and political renewal.

Lawrence Davidson’s biographical study identifies al-Banna’s early association with the Hashafiyya Sufi order.

This background is relevant because it cautions against describing al-Banna’s intellectual formation as entirely detached from tasawwuf.

Richard P. Mitchell’s The Society of the Muslim Brothers and the collection Five Tracts of Hasan al-Banna, edited by Charles Wendell, will provide important materials for examining his educational, organisational and political ideas.

The research will investigate how al-Banna understood individual spiritual development in relation to collective Islamic reform.

8.4 Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and the restoration of the Caliphate

Al-Nabhani’s political thought provides a distinctive institutional approach to Islamic governance.

Suha Taji-Farouki’s study, Islamic Discourse and Modern Political Methods, examines his use of Islamic textual sources and the development of Hizb ut-Tahrir’s political methodology.

His principal writings, including Nizam al-Islam, Nizam al-Hukm fi al-Islam and Nizam al-Iqtisad fi al-Islam, will be examined to understand his position on political authority, law and economic organisation.

The research will distinguish his criticism of particular forms of religious and political practice from any broader claim that he rejected all dimensions of spirituality.

8.5 Abul A’la al-Maududi and divine sovereignty

Al-Maududi’s concept of Hakimiyyah is central to modern discussions of Islamic political sovereignty.

His writings provide a framework for understanding the relationship between divine authority, legislation and political organisation.

Usaama al-Azami’s article, Locating Hakimiyya in Global History, provides a useful scholarly examination of the historical and intellectual development of the concept.

Humeira Iqtidar’s research on Maududi’s political thought also demonstrates the need to examine his arguments in their colonial and intellectual context rather than reducing them to simple opposition to Western political ideas.

The study will investigate the extent to which his concept of divine sovereignty relates to the ethical and spiritual foundations of political authority.

8.6 Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi and Islamic social renewal

Shaykh Abdalqadir’s writings offer a distinctive approach to Islamic renewal.

His official publication catalogue identifies works dealing with Tawhid, action, leadership, zakat, Islamic education and political authority.

In particular, Sultaniyya is presented as a discussion of political authority, personal rule and the relationship between wealth and political power.

The Muslim Prince provides another important primary source for examining leadership and the formation of a new society.

The present study will examine these works in their entirety where available, with particular attention to the actual terminology and arguments employed by the author.

It will also examine whether his approach establishes a necessary relationship between spiritual transformation and the development of Islamic political and economic institutions.

8.7 Synthesis of the literature

The literature suggests that the selected thinkers address different but related questions.

Raja Ali Haji examines the ethical and institutional responsibilities of rulers within a Malay Islamic political environment.

Al-Banna examines individual and collective reform through religious education and organisation.

Al-Nabhani develops a political methodology directed towards the restoration of the Caliphate.

Al-Maududi develops an influential understanding of divine sovereignty and Islamic political order.

Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi examines the restoration of Islamic social life through spiritual formation, leadership, wealth, zakat and commercial relationships.

The comparative contribution of the proposed research lies in examining these approaches through an integrated framework of Tawhid, tasawwuf, adab, siyasah and muamalah.

9. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

9.1 The proposed framework

The research proposes that Islamic civilisation can be examined through the relationship between spiritual foundations, individual formation, social conduct and institutional development.

The framework consists of five interconnected dimensions.

Dimension 1: Tawhid

Tawhid provides the foundational understanding of Allah’s sovereignty and the human responsibility to live in accordance with divine guidance.

It informs the individual’s understanding of worship, accountability and responsibility.

Dimension 2: Tasawwuf and tazkiyatun nafs

Tasawwuf and purification of the soul concern the development of sincerity, humility, self-discipline and freedom from destructive qualities of the nafs.

The research will examine how these qualities are connected to the responsible exercise of authority.

Dimension 3: Adab and akhlaq

Adab represents the practical expression of spiritual and religious understanding in personal and social relationships.

It includes justice, trustworthiness, humility, responsibility, respect for knowledge and proper conduct in positions of authority.

Dimension 4: Siyasah and muamalah

Siyasah concerns political leadership, authority, justice and public administration.

Muamalah concerns commercial, financial and social relationships.

These two dimensions will be examined as outward expressions of Islamic principles in organised society.

Dimension 5: Ummah and civilisation

The ultimate area of investigation is the development of a Muslim community characterised by religious understanding, ethical leadership, social responsibility and economic justice.

The framework is intended as an analytical model. It does not presume that all five thinkers explicitly formulated these elements in the same sequence or terminology.

9.2 Conceptual representation

TAWHID

↓

TASAWWUF AND TAZKIYATUN NAFS

↓

ADAB AND AKHLAQ

↓

SIYASAH AND MUAMALAH

↓

UMMAH AND ISLAMIC CIVILISATION

The framework will be tested against the primary texts and refined according to the findings.

9.3 Comparative dimensions

Dimension	Raja Ali Haji	Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi
Tawhid	Religious foundations of political responsibility	Tawhid as a foundation of the Islamic way of life
Spiritual formation	To be investigated through the text’s moral and religious teachings	Tasawwuf and spiritual transformation
Adab	Ethics of rulers and public officials	Character, spiritual responsibility and leadership
Siyasah	Sultanate, administration, justice and authority	Amir, personal leadership and political renewal
Muamalah	Public responsibilities and legal-economic matters in the text	Trade, zakat, wealth, markets and dinar-dirham
Social order	Justice and stability within the Malay political environment	Re-establishment of Islamic community practices

The three twentieth-century thinkers will be assessed against these same dimensions, while allowing for differences in their conceptual vocabulary.

10. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

10.1 Research design

The research will employ a qualitative, historical and comparative design.

It will involve:

1. Historical contextualisation.
2. Primary textual analysis.
3. Thematic content analysis.
4. Comparative intellectual analysis.
5. Critical interpretation of contemporary relevance.

10.2 Primary sources

The principal primary sources will include the following.

A. Raja Ali Haji

• Tsamarat al-Muhimmah.
• Muqaddimah fi Intizam al-Waza’if al-Mulk, where relevant to contextual interpretation.

B. Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi

• Sultaniyya.
• The Muslim Prince.
• The Book of Tawhid.
• The Book of ’Amal.
• Root Islamic Education.
• Relevant published and recorded discourses.

C. Hasan al-Banna

• Five Tracts of Hasan al-Banna.
• Memoirs of the Call and the Preacher.
• Selected writings on Islamic reform, spiritual development and social organisation.

D. Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani

• Nizam al-Islam.
• Nizam al-Hukm fi al-Islam.
• Nizam al-Iqtisad fi al-Islam.
• Selected political writings.

E. Abul A’la al-Maududi

• Islamic Law and Constitution.
• Political Theory of Islam.
• The Islamic Law and Constitution and other relevant original essays, subject to edition verification.
• Selected writings on Hakimiyyah and the Islamic state.

10.3 Secondary sources

Secondary materials will include:

• Peer-reviewed journal articles.
• Academic books.
• Doctoral theses.
• Historical studies of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate.
• Research on Islamic political philosophy.
• Scholarly studies of modern Islamic movements.
• Academic research on tasawwuf and Islamic civilisation.

10.4 Textual analysis

The principal texts will be examined according to a structured thematic framework.

The initial coding categories will include:

1. Tawhid and divine authority.
2. Spiritual development and purification.
3. Adab and moral character.
4. Leadership qualifications.
5. Political authority and legitimacy.
6. Justice and public responsibility.
7. Shariah and governance.
8. Zakat and wealth distribution.
9. Trade and commercial practices.
10. Community and social development.

Where a theme does not appear explicitly in a particular text, it will be recorded as absent or not established rather than inferred.

10.5 Comparative analysis

The research will compare the thinkers through three levels.

Level One: Historical context

The circumstances and intellectual environments in which the thinkers developed their ideas.

Level Two: Conceptual analysis

Their respective understandings of Tawhid, spiritual formation, adab, authority and social organisation.

Level Three: Contemporary relevance

The extent to which their ideas may contribute to present-day discussions of Islamic leadership and community development.

10.6 Research validity and reliability

The study will employ:

• Verification against original texts wherever available.
• Comparison between manuscript and published editions.
• Cross-checking of historical dates and events.
• Clear distinction between primary evidence and secondary interpretation.
• Transparent documentation of translation decisions.
• Identification of disputed or insufficiently documented claims.

Where possible, important Malay, Arabic and English passages will be retained in their original language alongside translations.

10.7 Optional expert interviews

If appropriate and approved by the relevant research ethics process, semi-structured interviews may be conducted with:

• Scholars of Raja Ali Haji and Malay manuscripts.
• Scholars of Islamic political thought.
• Researchers of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi.
• Scholars of tasawwuf and Islamic intellectual history.

These interviews would provide contextual insights but would not replace textual evidence.

11. PROPOSED CHAPTER STRUCTURE

Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Framework

• Background of the study.
• Research problem.
• Research objectives.
• Research questions.
• Research significance.
• Scope and limitations.
• Research methodology.

Chapter 2: Historical and Intellectual Foundations of Islamic Political Thought

• Classical Islamic political philosophy.
• Tawhid and political responsibility.
• Al-Mawardi and Islamic governance.
• Al-Ghazali and ethical leadership.
• The relationship between tasawwuf and political authority.
• The historical development of Islamic political thought.

Chapter 3: Raja Ali Haji and Islamic Governance in the Malay World

• Raja Ali Haji’s intellectual and historical environment.
• The Riau-Lingga Sultanate.
• The origins and structure of Tsamarat al-Muhimmah.
• The religious foundations of governance.
• The Sultan, ministers and public officials.
• Justice, judicial responsibility and ethical leadership.
• The relationship between Shariah and government.
• Spiritual and moral dimensions of governance.

Chapter 4: Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi and the Revival of Islamic Social Order

• Historical and intellectual background.
• Tawhid and spiritual transformation.
• Tasawwuf and tazkiyatun nafs.
• Personal leadership and the concept of Amir.
• Sultaniyya and political authority.
• Islamic economic life and muamalah.
• Zakat, waqf, trade and the market.
• Dinar and dirham.
• Islamic education and community formation.

Chapter 5: Twentieth-Century Islamic Political Thought

• Historical context after the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate.
• Hasan al-Banna and Islamic social reform.
• Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and the restoration of the Caliphate.
• Abul A’la al-Maududi and Hakimiyyah.
• Their respective approaches to spiritual development.
• Political organisation, authority and governance.
• Similarities and differences.

Chapter 6: Comparative Analysis of Spirituality, Adab and Governance

• Tawhid and divine authority.
• Tasawwuf and spiritual formation.
• Adab and ethical leadership.
• Siyasah and political legitimacy.
• Muamalah and economic justice.
• Leadership and the formation of society.
• Historical differences and intellectual continuities.
• The proposed integrated framework.

Chapter 7: Contemporary Implications for Islamic Civilisation

• Spiritual development and leadership.
• Zawiyah and Islamic education.
• Wakaf and community development.
• Amir and community responsibility.
• Islamic economic practices.
• Ethical markets and commercial relationships.
• Implications for contemporary Muslim institutions.
• Limitations of translating historical models into modern settings.

Chapter 8: Conclusion and Recommendations

• Summary of findings.
• Contributions to Islamic political thought.
• Contributions to Malay intellectual heritage.
• Theoretical implications.
• Practical recommendations.
• Areas for future research.

12. EXPECTED RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS

12.1 Contribution to Islamic political philosophy

The study is expected to provide a more integrated understanding of Islamic governance by examining the relationship between spiritual formation, moral leadership and political institutions.

It will investigate whether the inner development of individuals should be regarded as an essential dimension of political and social responsibility.

12.2 Contribution to Malay intellectual heritage

The research will contribute to the recognition of Raja Ali Haji as an important thinker in the development of Islamic political and ethical thought in the Malay world.

It will also examine the relevance of Tsamarat al-Muhimmah to contemporary discussions of ethical governance.

12.3 Contribution to contemporary tasawwuf studies

The study will examine tasawwuf not only as an individual spiritual discipline but also in relation to ethical conduct, leadership, social responsibility and community development.

It will investigate the extent to which spiritual formation informs the exercise of authority.

12.4 Contribution to comparative Islamic studies

The study will provide a structured comparison of nineteenth-century Malay political thought, twentieth-century Islamic political movements and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi’s approach to contemporary Islamic renewal.

It will avoid reducing these traditions to a simplistic division between traditionalism and modernism.

12.5 Practical contribution to Muslim community development

The research may provide an intellectual foundation for developing institutions that connect:

• Zawiyah and spiritual education.
• Madrasah and character development.
• Wakaf and sustainable community institutions.
• Amir and responsible community leadership.
• Zakat and social welfare.
• Trade and ethical commercial practices.

These applications will be presented as contemporary possibilities requiring separate legal, institutional and empirical assessment.

13. PROPOSED RESEARCH WORK PLAN

The proposed research period is twelve months, subject to institutional requirements and the availability of primary sources.

Period	Research activity	Expected output
Months 1–2	Collect primary texts and establish bibliography	Verified source inventory
Month 3	Historical and literature review	Literature review
Months 4–5	Analyse Tsamarat al-Muhimmah	Raja Ali Haji analysis
Months 6–7	Analyse Shaykh Abdalqadir’s writings	Spirituality and governance analysis
Month 8	Examine the three twentieth-century thinkers	Comparative political analysis
Month 9	Develop comparative framework	Analytical matrix
Month 10	Examine contemporary implications	Application chapter
Month 11	Integrate findings and draft conclusion	Complete manuscript
Month 12	Review, edit and finalise	Submission-ready research

14. CLAIMS REQUIRING VERIFICATION

The following issues are particularly important because they appear in the original uploaded document but should not be accepted as established conclusions without further evidence.

Claim in the source document	Required research action
Raja Ali Haji directly adopted al-Mawardi’s political framework	Identify textual parallels and documentary evidence
Raja Ali Haji made tasawwuf the explicit foundation of his political theory	Examine the original text and relevant religious vocabulary
The Sultan is explicitly described as Khalifatullah or Zhillullah in the relevant passages	Verify the exact wording and manuscript context
Al-Banna reduced tasawwuf to organisational discipline	Compare his own writings, memoirs and the history of the Hashafiyya tradition
Al-Nabhani rejected tasawwuf in its entirety	Distinguish his documented criticism of particular practices from broader claims
Al-Maududi considered all Sufi institutions politically harmful	Examine his actual writings and historical context
Shaykh Abdalqadir regarded all modern nation-states as instruments of global capitalism	Identify and analyse the relevant primary passages
Fiat currency is categorically invalid according to Shaykh Abdalqadir	Establish the precise legal and economic argument in his writings
The decline of the Ottoman Empire was fundamentally caused by the abandonment of tasawwuf	Treat as an attributed interpretation and test against historical scholarship
The political failures of modern Islamic movements resulted from neglecting tasawwuf	Treat as a research hypothesis, not an established historical finding

This verification process is essential to the academic credibility of the research.

15. CONCLUSION

This research proposes a comparative investigation of Islamic political thought through the intellectual contributions of Raja Ali Haji and Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi.

Although separated by historical circumstances, both provide valuable material for investigating the relationship between Islamic belief, ethical conduct, leadership and the organisation of society.

Raja Ali Haji’s Tsamarat al-Muhimmah offers an important perspective on the responsibilities of rulers and public officials within the Malay Islamic political tradition.

Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi’s writings offer a contemporary perspective on the relationship between Tawhid, spiritual formation, personal authority, economic relationships and Islamic community development.

The inclusion of Hasan al-Banna, Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani and Abul A’la al-Maududi will enable the research to examine the different approaches developed by modern Islamic political thinkers in response to the challenges of their time.

The ultimate purpose is not to establish that one political model is universally superior to another. Rather, it is to investigate the deeper intellectual and spiritual foundations required for the development of an Islamic society.

The study proposes that the relationship between Tawhid, tasawwuf, adab, siyasah and muamalah deserves renewed scholarly attention.

It is hoped that the research will contribute to the revival of Malay Islamic intellectual heritage and provide a meaningful framework for contemporary discussions of Islamic governance and civilisation.

16. PRELIMINARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography is provisional. Editions, publication dates, translators and page references must be checked against the copies actually used in the research.

A. Primary Islamic and classical sources

Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid. Nasihat al-Muluk. Various Arabic editions and translations.

Al-Mawardi, Abu al-Hasan. Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah wa al-Wilayat al-Diniyyah. Various Arabic editions and translations.

Raja Ali Haji. Tsamarat al-Muhimmah. Original Malay-Jawi text and verified critical or reprinted editions.

Raja Ali Haji. Muqaddimah fi Intizam al-Waza’if al-Mulk. Original text and available editions.

B. Raja Ali Haji scholarship

Harris, Khalif Muammar A. (2011). “Ilmu Ketatanegaraan Melayu Abad ke-19: Kajian terhadap Karya Raja Ali Haji.” SARI: Jurnal Alam dan Tamadun Melayu, 29(1), 79–101.

Yusof, Azman. (2012). Pemikiran Ketatanegaraan Raja Ali Haji dalam Thamarat al-Muhimmah. Master’s thesis, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Degree and full bibliographic details to be confirmed.

Raja Hisyamudin bin Raja Sulong, M. Zaidi bin A. Rahman, Muhamad Alihanafiah bin Norasid and Osman bin Rasip. (2026). “An Analytical Study of Raja Ali Haji’s (1809–1873 CE) Political Thought through Quranic Exegesis in Thamarat al-Muhimmah.” QURANICA – International Journal of Quranic Research, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.22452/quranica.vol18no1.32.

Mohd Noor, Arba’iyah. (2021). “Literary and Intellectual Life in Nineteenth-Century Penyengat Island, Riau: The Works of Raja Ali Haji.” Al-Shajarah, 26(2), 197–218. https://doi.org/10.31436/shajarah.v26i2.660.

C. Hasan al-Banna

Al-Banna, Hasan. Five Tracts of Hasan al-Banna (1906–1949). Edited and translated by Charles Wendell. University of California Press, 1978.

Mitchell, Richard P. (1993). The Society of the Muslim Brothers. Oxford University Press.

Davidson, Lawrence. (2009). “Hasan al-Banna (1906–1949) and the Muslim Brotherhood.” The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0688.

D. Taqiyuddin al-Nabhani

Al-Nabhani, Taqiyuddin. Nizam al-Islam. Original Arabic editions and authorised translations.

Al-Nabhani, Taqiyuddin. Nizam al-Hukm fi al-Islam. Original Arabic editions and authorised translations.

Al-Nabhani, Taqiyuddin. Nizam al-Iqtisad fi al-Islam. Original Arabic editions and authorised translations.

Taji-Farouki, Suha. (1994). “Islamic Discourse and Modern Political Methods: An Analysis of al-Nabhani’s Reading of the Canonical Textual Sources of Islam.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v11i3.2416.

E. Abul A’la al-Maududi

Maududi, Abul A’la. Islamic Law and Constitution. Various editions and translations.

Maududi, Abul A’la. Political Theory of Islam. Various editions.

Al-Azami, Usaama. (2022). “Locating Hakimiyya in Global History: The Concept of Sovereignty in Premodern Islam and Its Reception after Mawdudi and Qutb.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 32(Special Issue 2), 355–376. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1356186321000675.

Iqtidar, Humeira. (2021). “Jizya against Nationalism: Abul A’la Maududi’s Attempt at Decolonizing Political Theory.” The Journal of Politics, 83(3), 1145–1157. https://doi.org/10.1086/710973.

F. Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi

Abdalqadir as-Sufi. Sultaniyya. Madinah Press, Cape Town, 2002. Edition details to be verified against the copy consulted.

Abdalqadir as-Sufi. The Muslim Prince. Madinah Press. Publication details to be verified.

Abdalqadir as-Sufi. The Book of Tawhid. Madinah Press. Edition details to be verified.

Abdalqadir as-Sufi. The Book of ’Amal. Madinah Press. Edition details to be verified.

Abdalqadir as-Sufi. Root Islamic Education. Publication details to be verified.

Official author bibliography and published discourses: https://shaykhabdalqadir.com/books/.

G. Historical context

Matheson, Virginia. (2009). “Strategies of Survival: The Malay Royal Line of Lingga-Riau.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press.

17. IMMEDIATE RESEARCH PRIORITIES

Before proceeding to a full thesis or journal manuscript, the following tasks should be completed:

1. Obtain and authenticate the original or authoritative edition of Tsamarat al-Muhimmah.
2. Prepare a chapter-by-chapter and passage-by-passage analysis of Raja Ali Haji’s text.
3. Obtain the full texts of Sultaniyya and The Muslim Prince.
4. Compile the relevant primary writings and recorded discourses of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi.
5. Identify the precise passages concerning Tawhid, tasawwuf, leadership, Amir, zakat, waqf, trade and currency.
6. Collect the principal political writings of al-Banna, al-Nabhani and al-Maududi.
7. Establish a comparative textual matrix.
8. Review the research gap against the latest published scholarship.
9. Finalise the conceptual framework after the primary-text analysis.
10. Determine whether expert interviews are necessary and obtain research ethics approval where applicable.

Final research direction

The proposed research should ultimately investigate one fundamental question:

How can the spiritual formation of the individual, grounded in Tawhid and expressed through tasawwuf and adab, contribute to the establishment of just leadership, sound muamalah and the sustainable development of Islamic civilisation?

This question provides the intellectual focus for bringing together Raja Ali Haji’s Malay Islamic political heritage, Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi’s contemporary teachings and the wider experience of twentieth-century Islamic political thought.

18. Important scholarly observations and verification notes

A preliminary check of academic sources identifies several particularly useful findings:

1. Raja Ali Haji: Khalif Muammar A. Harris’s 2011 study confirms the importance of Tsamarat al-Muhimmah in Malay constitutional thought and identifies its discussions of justice, religious foundations and public administration. melayu.library.uitm.edu.my +1

2. Recent scholarship: A study published in QURANICA in June 2026 specifically examines Raja Ali Haji’s political thought through Qur’anic interpretation in Thamarat al-Muhimmah. This should be included in the literature review to avoid claiming that this subject has never been studied. International Journal of Quranic Research

3. Hasan al-Banna: His association with the Hashafiyya Sufi order is documented in biographical scholarship. This makes him an especially interesting comparative figure. Wiley Online Library +1

4. Al-Nabhani: Suha Taji-Farouki’s research provides an important basis for understanding his political methodology and engagement with Islamic textual sources. American Journal of Islam and Society

5. Al-Maududi: Recent scholarship cautions against oversimplifying his concept of Hakimiyyah or treating it as merely a rejection of Western political thought. Cambridge Core +1

6. Shaykh Abdalqadir: His official publication catalogue confirms Sultaniyya, The Muslim Prince, The Book of Tawhid and Root Islamic Education as relevant primary materials. Shaykh Dr. Abdalqadir as-Sufi

7. Historical accuracy: The completion and publication dates of Tsamarat al-Muhimmah should be checked against the manuscript and editions consulted. Sources give differing date descriptions, including 1275H/1857 and 1858. The 1911 termination of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate is supported by historical scholarship. wadahdbp.my +2

19. My recommendation for taking this research forward

I would give particular attention to one aspect: the relationship between Shariah, Tariqah, Haqiqah and Ma’rifah in the development of Islamic leadership and civilisation.

This could become a distinctive contribution of the research, provided the relationship is developed from appropriate primary sources rather than imposed retrospectively on the selected thinkers.

The research should also distinguish three levels:

• The formation of the individual through Tawhid and tasawwuf.
• The formation of leadership through adab, knowledge and responsibility.
• The formation of society through siyasah, muamalah and just institutions.

This gives the research both intellectual depth and practical relevance.

The next critical milestone is obtaining the primary texts and building a verified comparative evidence matrix before drafting the full research chapters. That will determine whether the proposed conceptual framework is supported by the original writings.

Professor Dr Zuhaimy Ismail